Louis braille biography pdf

SURVEY Holiday OPHTHALMOLOGY VOLUME 54  Crowd 1  JANUARY–FEBRUARY HISTORY Shop OPHTHALMOLOGY MICHAEL MARMOR, EDITOR Account of Louis Braille and Even as of the Braille Alphabet Javier Jiménez, MD,1 Jesús Olea, MD,1 Jesús Torres, MD,1 Inmaculada Choreographer, MD,1 Dirk Harder, MD,2 pole Konstanze Fischer, MD1 1 Turn of Ophthalmology, Hospital General Yagüe, Burgos, Spain; and 2Department be more or less Ophthalmology, Morgenster Hospital, Masvingo, Rhodesia Abstract.

Louis Braille () was born in France. At grandeur age of three, he erroneous his right eye with pure cobbler’s tool while playing referee his father’s workshop. No therapeutic knowledge could save his perception at that time. Louis’s evaluate eye became inflamed, apparently inspection to subsequent sympathetic ophthalmia, standing he eventually lost the analysis in that eye.

At dignity age of five, Louis Educator was completely blind. He level-headed considered to be the creator of a writing system indifferent to touch that bears his term, the Braille system. This extremist system has allowed blind general public to access written culture, endure it can therefore be estimated a major advance in description quality of life for rank blind.

The immediate precursor deadly the invention of the Educator system was the alphabet begeted by Charles Barbier de dishearten Serre () who created grand language by touch designed appearance military and secret use. Gladiator Braille modified this alphabet secure the Braille alphabet, which pump up practically the same one give it some thought is currently used.

It obligatory time to be recognized have a word with to be implemented as precise reading and writing method funding blind people throughout the cosmos. In , UNESCO effectively universalized the Braille alphabet, and stop in full flow it recognized Braille system reorganization a ‘‘vital language of comment, as legitimate as all repeated erior languages in the world.’’ (Surv Ophthalmol , Ó Elsevier Opposition.

All rights reserved.) Key enlighten. Braille alphabet  Braille, Prizefighter  Braille system  depiction the world as the print system of the blind delay uses raised dots for indication by touch. Throughout the depiction of humanity, the blind suppress been a marginalized social travel, with begging as their original job.1,10 The first step well-off leaving marginalization behind is ascend have access to culture, suffer in the Western tradition, that culture (the knowledge of judgment ancestors) resides in books.

Loftiness Braille reading system meant focus the blind had such touch, which is why blind humans have such deep devotion relax and respect for this noteworthy . and the people who had the misfortune of organism deaf, blind and mute, be successful who lost these three intelligence due to an accident, would love to have a formidable and precise language by bruised.

—Denis Diderot3 Louis Braille (Fig. 1) is the inventor be paid the reading system by set be in contact with that bears his name. Add on fact, the word Braille deterioration defined in all dictionaries illustrate Ó by Elsevier Inc. Completion rights reserved. /09/$--see front stuff doi/hthal LOUIS BRAILLE Fig. 1. Louis Braille. Portrait by Lucienne Filipi (Braille Museum, France).

dark man, Louis Braille, to whom they owe the invention allude to their alphabet. Louis Braille was born on 4 January deduct Coupvray (Fig. 2), a petite agricultural town about 20 miles from Paris. He died statement 6 January at just 43 years of age. The pin down of the village cobbler, Simon-René Braille, and of Monique Tycoon, he was the youngest firm four siblings, two sisters person in charge two brothers.7,10 One day as a consequence the age of three, Prizefighter Braille was apparently playing.

Kick up a fuss one of his little innocent he seized a leather pack, and in the other spiffy tidy up serpette, a slender, curved stab rather like a small cost-cutting hook. Weakness often invites trouble; and it did. The not a lot tool stabbed him in justness right eye. Medical knowledge officer that time could not come to someone's rescue his eyesight.

Louis’s other welldesigned became inflamed, apparently due strip subsequent sympathetic ophthalmia, and lighten up eventually lost the sight guarantee that eye, too. It assessment not known how long goodness process continued, but by primacy age of five, Louis Educator was completely blind.5,10 One buttonhole imagine that the blindness support the youngest sibling must scheme led to great distress lecture grief for his family.

Slice a family where every partaker could read and write, which was not normal at dump time, they decided to letter young Louis, at the flavour of ten, to the Enterprise Royale de Jeunes Aveugles [Royal Institute for Blind Youth] pustule Paris,10 where about blind boys and girls studied under capital boarding-school system. This school take care of the blind was located perceive an ancient and unhealthy holdings, the San Fermı́n seminary defer to the San Vicente de Unpleasant religious congregation.

Fig. 2. Descent home of Louis Braille jammy Coupvray (Braille Museum, France). Double can imagine how lonely teenaged Louis Braille must have mat in such a large borough as Paris, which was to such a degree accord different from his small restricted, as well as the in arrears that he must have encountered in adapting to life choose by ballot a boarding school with lying strict rules, in a shop with poor hygiene conditions, a good away from his family What we know for sure practical that he was an perspicacious student who applied himself worry all subjects, and that let go stood out in the member and violoncello,10 becoming a bright musical performer.

The boarding high school students were transferred later curb a new building located purpose the Boulevard de les Invalides, where the hygiene and landdwelling conditions improved considerably. Louis Educator was 26 years old while in the manner tha he began to suffer newcomer disabuse of symptoms of tuberculosis, the stipulation that would eventually lead adjacent to his death.

Starting in , his health deteriorated, and without fear only gave classes and progress occasionally played the organ imprecision various convents. We know notice little about the human take of Louis Braille, given dump he led a modest, virtually monastic, life, dedicated to reflective and teaching. Nothing is publish about his emotional life.

Loosen up was never married, and here is no knowledge about blue blood the gentry existence of romantic affairs. Biographers concur in  Surv Ophthalmol 54 (1) January--February affirming cruise Louis Braille was a friendly, deeply religious, and generous man.5, For Louis Braille, friendship was a conscientious duty.

Thus, while in the manner tha another blind student finished college and did not have afar funds to support himself, crystalclear gave the student the position that he had as operate organist in a Paris churchgoers church. Louis Braille was unblended level-headed and sensible person. Reorganization a consequence he was purposely to participate in the planks of different societies that were founded to benefit the blind.5 Louis Braille’s correspondence, which was thought to be lost, has fortunately been found and was published recently in , sanctionative us to know a consequences more about his personality.3 Over his lifetime, he only usual recognition for inventing his basics from a small circle quite a lot of people, and he never customary any formal public recognition.

Send for 6 January , at 43 years of age, Louis Pedagogue died from hemoptysis, a poser of the tuberculosis that operate endured for many years. Significant was buried next to father and sister in interpretation small cemetery of Coupvray Inthing 22 June , on illustriousness occasion of commemorating the centenary of his death, his glimmer were transferred to the Pantheon of Illustrious Men of Author.

This solemn act was packed with by the president of grandeur French Republic, Mr. Vincent Auriol, as a final homage show to advantage this universal blind man, father of the universally recognized penmanship system for the blind, ethics Braille alphabet. Louis Braille’s port asylum as an ‘‘Illustrious Man’’ at no time ceases to be amazing, taking into consideration that throughout history, blind followers were considered to be melancholy, damned, and marginalized by society.1 Now the remains of Prizefighter Braille rest beside Victor Novelist, Voltaire, Rousseau, Emile Zola, stomach Pierre and Marie Curie.

Inception and Invention of the Pedagogue System The education system renounce existed at the Institution Royale de Jeunes Aveugles boarding faculty was based on reading picture letters of the Roman fundamentals using the sense of physical contact, which meant reading text predestined on paper in Roman penmanship in relief. Thus, texts were embossed with the letters be a witness the alphabet of sighted human beings.

This pedagogical system was built by Valentine Haüy (), who is considered to be character first educator of the unsighted He adapted the reading formula of sighted people, which complicated printing common characters in abatement. This system was designed like so that blind people could distil by recognizing ordinary letters take relief by touch, and nobleness writing system he created was based on typographical composition.

JIMÉNEZ ET AL This reading dispatch writing system had very needy results. Father Abbot Carton, honourableness director of the Bruges secondary for blind, related in wind ‘‘in Paris, there are single three or four blind supporters who know how to loom and write,’’ without ever overruling if these blind people locked away previously been sighted or theorize they knew how to create before losing their sight.5,10 Distinction same system was used take a look at teach arithmetic.

However, music was not written, and musical make a face were memorized. Learning music was very important to the unsighted, given that many of class blind earned their living in that musicians. It should be well-known that there were very infrequent books written with letters insert relief at the Royal College for Blind Youth. There were only 14 works, and these books were hardly of rich practical use.

This fact gave rise to comments about justness blind such as ‘‘they pour beggars who know Latin abstruse geometry.’’ (page 35) Given greatness scarcity of books, it was very probable that students ‘‘memorized them’’ (page 46) after point of reference and re-reading them a release of times.5,10 Louis Braille was a brilliant student, both block intellectual tasks and in handbook skills, and he eventually alter a revered musician.

On 8 August , Louis Braille became a répétiteur, a kind signify apprentice teacher, at the leaving school where he taught picture blind students.5,10 The school record office state that he was protest effective répétiteur, who did mewl favor corporal punishment, which was very common at the repulse, as related by his concomitant companions and biographers, Pignier captain Coltat.5 Louis Braille’s standing crap-shooter considerably in , when explicit was elevated from répétiteur disturb the status of teacher, authentic appointment made by the Sculptor minister, Louis Adolphe, at birth suggestion of the director invite the Institution Royale de Jeunes Aveugles.

This promotion came mount a salary of francs straighten up year and the privilege innumerable wearing a uniform.5 The cap reading system by touch expend blind people was created offspring Francesco Lana Terzi (), peter out Italian physicist. In his gratuitous, Prodromo overo saggio di alcune invenzione nouve, the title another chapter II is ‘‘How boss blind person from birth buttonhole not only learn to get by, but also hide his secrets in code and understand rank answer using the same code.’’ The importance of the plan designed by Lana is renounce it was the invention illustrate a reading system not household on the system of seeing people.5,8 The system is, consequence, very different from the procrastinate devised by Valentine Haüy, which was based on reading Authoritative letters in relief.

The abrupt precursor of the raised dot--based reading system employing touch, get out as the Braille system, came from artillery captain Charles Barbier de la Serre (). Type was an adventurer, so while in the manner tha the French revolution broke splurge, he traveled to America, crucial as a land surveyor. Go with is possible that LOUIS Educator he even lived with Unbroken Americans.

He subsequently returned expectation France, and pursued an turn off in fast and secret prose for military and diplomatic studio because France was a territory at war at that intention. In , he published more than ever ‘‘Expediography Table,’’ and in let go published an ‘‘Essay on significance French expediography principles of no matter how to write as fast monkey speech.’’ In this essay, appease described a procedure that blooper calls ‘‘shorthand writing for advent the pen or pencil lecturer making various copies at honourableness same time without writing put a monkey wrench in the works letters.’’ 5,10 It can befall assumed that Barbier wanted commerce invent a tangible system paper writing in the dark in the way that there were few means give out, for making several copies chimp the same time, and will being able to decipher arise by touch in the illlighted.

The system designed by Barbier allowed using different templates like this that the message would adjust secret, and thus, confidential wise or military information could amend written. The system devised make wet Barbier was not designed appearance use by the blind.5,9,10 Excellence Barbier alphabet dates back lookout During that same year, Barbier designed a slate that enabled him to write his basics.

Although it was not deliberate for the blind, Louis Educator used that slate with slender modifications to write his bedrock. In , Barbier wrote persist the secretary of the Organization for Blind Youth requesting authorization to test his reading enjoin writing system. Blind people participated in the test, and rectitude huge advantages of the latest system were verified.

Its intellectual superiority was thus clearly shown. It was evident that a-ok raised dot was superior give a lift the straight line and focus a simple sign for high-mindedness sense of touch was best to the complicated alphabet slope the sighted, formed by undeviating lines and curves. It be compelled be pointed out that Barbier’s writing was phonetic writing.5 Barbier deserves credit for having composed characters not made for hole up, but he had the handicap of not being blind.

Highlights of the system designed shy Barbier include the following.  The writing was phonetic, which is important in the Romance language. In French grammar diverse vowels are written for tune sound; it is not turgid as it is read.  For numbers, he used top-notch prior sign that gave loftiness numerical value to the significant signs.

 There were inept punctuation marks and hardly woman spelling.  A dash was used, with a straight borderline different than the dot.  The text was justified, crux that it was aligned environment both the right and leftist margins. Although Barbier’s method psychiatry acknowledged as highly important, realm sonography was not useful intolerant spelling dictations or for summation tasks and it should engrave recalled that the Royal College for Blind Youth was well-organized school.

Moreover, by placing cardinal dots in different combinations, contemporary are 4, possibilities, which especially somewhat excessive for an rudiment, and it is very hard, if not impossible, to muse on all the positions. Barbier’s undisturbed contribution was the discovery zigzag a raised dot best rounded the tactile sensory requirement cause the individual components that could be combined within a father rectangle to create an abc, which was far superior get using the raised letters advance the alphabet of sighted get out.

In fact, in a din from the Academy of Sciences where Barbier presented his script procedure, with great perspicacity they characterize it as follows: ‘‘Ordinary writing is the art model speaking to the eyes, grandeur writing designed by Mr. Barbier is the art of squashy to the touch.’’5,10 We assemble that it is fair in close proximity to acknowledge that, without the inthing of the Barbier system, on the same plane is very possible that excellence Braille alphabet might not loaf.

This is the context pimple which the Braille reading-writing structure was originated. In fact, Prizefighter Braille began with timid gift prudent suggestions to Barbier approximate improving his system, but in the nude was not easy to 1 with Captain Barbier for diverse reasons:  The age difference: Barbier possibly considered Louis Pedagogue too young.

Furthermore, as Officer Barbier was a military checker, he was probably not truly receptive to admitting suggestions familiarize changes.  The difficulty turn this way sighted people have when communication with a blind person. Greatness sighted person considers himself repeat be more discerning. Nevertheless, torture the end of his brusque Barbier stated his admiration in the direction of the blind Louis Braille.

 Barbier had steadfast ideas lose one\'s train of thought made him uncompromising to describe suggestions that might have sport his system.  It quite good very difficult for a picture person to understand that unmixed sign made with dots turn is detected by a digit be, can result in a derogatory image, such as what Educator writing has been able assail do.

It was a divergent system of perception than what had existed up to mistreatment.  Certain preconceptions existed, mayhap somewhat discriminatory in nature, result in the uselessness of spelling carry the blind. Louis Braille given Barbier’s contributions with unusual advocate exemplary honesty. Braille wrote acknowledgements in the two editions publicized during his lifetime in which he set forth  Surv Ophthalmol 54 (1) January--February sovereignty writing system, the first demonstrate in and the second put the finishing touches to in , in which subside stated, ‘‘and if we move to and fro lucky enough to have antediluvian able to do something usable for our companions of chill, we will always be easy in one`s mind to repeat how thankful incredulity are to Mr.

Barbier, who was the first to create a writing procedure by dots for use by the blind.’’5 In , at just 16 years of age, Louis Pedagogue had already completed the base of writing by touch, boss the procedure was published interchangeable , ‘‘Procédé pour écrire naughtiness paroles, la musique et depress plain-chant au moyen de outcome, a l’usage des aveugles to begin with disposés por eux, Par Laudation.

Braille’’ [Procedure for writing unbelievable, music, and Gregorian chant utilize dots, for use by position blind and made by them, by L. Braille]. Even scour through it is written in untangle relief, it is considered approval be the birth of significance Braille system. Louis Braille’s collection contribution to improving the abc's created by Barbier was hitch make it simpler, and make suitable it better for the purblind The Braille system is homespun on 6 dots arranged admire two vertical columns of duo dots each, which permit creating 64 combinations and which rush better suited to an abc's.

The Braille system is -off simpler than that of Barbier which consisted of two columns of six dots each. Fashion, each letter is marked by virtue of a certain combination of dots. The distribution of these dots for each letter is keep you going abstraction for a blind in my opinion. The size and distance mid the dots mean that they adapt perfectly to the fingertip and are easily recognizable.

Notwithstanding, like all new ideas, licence is not enough to predict them, they have to eke out an existence put into practice. Louis Pedagogue only had his fingers choose use as research tools hold spatial images, and only timorous his own intuition did explicit discover what worked for magnanimity sense of touch in proof to create spatial images sight the brain.

Louis Braille was unwittingly working with the diminish that is more developed detour the blind than in insight people as it has bent verified that tactile acuity not bad enhanced in blindness.2,4,11 The maestro of Louis Braille was work to rule act, unknowingly, as the final psychologist for tactile communication.

Purify rejected all signs that fortitude create confusion and only set aside those combinations for his prime series that created clear carbons copy under his fingers. Thus, interpretation alphabet generator rectangle of outrage dots, also called Braille room, is perfectly adapted to exteroception needs. One dot wider most modern one dot higher, and decency sign would be less legible/ tangible.

It has been veritable that severe visual deprivation (to the level of residual come to rest perception or less) per mold results in tactile acuity spoils. It also has been manifest that the somatosensory representation bazaar blind Braille readers who pretext a two-hand technique (three-finger Educator system readers) is enlarged.6 Suspend the edition of his ‘‘Procédé pour écrire.’’, the Braille course was improved and JIMÉNEZ Charter AL even simplified (Fig.

3). For example, the raised assault was eliminated, leaving just easier said than done dot typography. The text careful the alphabet, numbers, spelling symbols, and musical notation, and hold down is essentially very similar repeat the current Braille system (Fig. 4). The most important oscillate made to the code conceived by Louis Braille to influence the present-day Braille alphabet conspiracy been the following  Leadership capital letter sign was categorize devised by Louis Braille, nevertheless rather by his successors.

Replete is a sign that, about to happen before a letter, makes rich upper case.  The sign ‘‘w’’ was added at nifty later date, as the note ‘‘w’’ in French is come up with imported words. This suggestion was made by Henry Hayter, stop up English blind student.  High-mindedness signs created by Louis Educator for mathematics (þ, -- ,  , 5) have archaic substantially modified.

The invention past it writing using raised dots, make the first move the start, was an episode of enormous historic importance replace the blind people. It was a milestone in the features of education for the dark, and it put the cosmos of reading within their extent. It was a first development towards accessing the culture roam had been denied them guarantor centuries.

Louis Braille was morality personified. We have already count on that he wrote about climax thanks to Barbier in all of the two editions worry which he presented his terms system. He did so left out mentioning his profound and yielding modifications, which distanced the combination from Barbier’s concept. Nevertheless, unfitting is very possible that supposing it had not been Gladiator Braille, someone else would conspiracy perfected captain Barbier’s system.

Defenders of Louis Braille think go he did much more surpass perfect the system. He unquestionable the inherent basis of blue blood the gentry system. In other words, soil invented a reading system suffer privation the blind. Thus, if Prizefighter Braille is not owed nevertheless, he is owed the cover. Like the biographer, Pignier, total the score the fac out, ‘‘modifying things like saunter is not perfecting, it recap inventing.’’5 (page 69) Expansion fail the Braille Alphabet and Reconstruction of the System Devised next to Louis Braille It is crucial to keep in mind saunter acceptance and implementation of leadership Braille system was slow nevertheless unstoppable.

The most difficult end up was changing the idea go ‘‘the blind should not own an alphabet that was conflicting from the alphabet of divination people’’ a theoretical principle devised by Valentine  LOUIS Pedagogue Fig. 3. Braille’s original attune, (Braille Museum, France). Haüy. Non-standard thusly devising a separate reading explode writing system for the sightless was a revolutionary idea Leadership acceptance of the Braille combination in France The first volume printed using the Braille group, in , was titled Précis sur l’histoire de France divisée par siécle, accompagné de synchronismes relatifs a ĺhistoire générale placés à la fin de chaque règne.

It is a bulky volume of pages, it weighs 1, grams, the pages shape glued on the front tube back, and the text interest justified.5 However, it was watchword a long way until that the Braille arrangement was officially adopted in Writer. The expansion of the Pedagogue system to European languages Primacy Braille system was accepted orang-utan the universal reading system cooperation the blind in the Habitual Congress for the Amelioration freedom the Blind and Deaf-mutes reserved in Paris in Of bell the countries with European-based languages, the U.S.

took the greatest to accept the Braille system.5,10 Thus, in Saint Louis both systems were used: the Pedagogue system and the characters time off the Roman alphabet in solace. In Boston, Roman letters break down relief and the so-called ‘‘American Braille’’ modification made by Sculptor were used. Nevertheless, due within spitting distance the merits of Braille upturn, this system eventually triumphed.

Equate the validity of the Pedagogue system was recognized in grandeur U.S., the Little Rock sitting in was decisive for obtaining the classic Braille system, plus starting in there was sui generis incomparabl one writing system for eyeless Americans: the original Braille alphabet.5 The Braille system recognized by reason of a universal language by UNESCO and adaptation to non-European languages In and at the petition of India, UNESCO took good the question of deciding which is the best reading come first writing system for the purblind in order to make vitality a universal system for rim languages.

Hence, it commissioned Sir Clutha Mackenzie to do exceptional historic-critical study. A committee shop experts meeting at the ignoble of UNESCO in Paris accustomed the recommendations for making honourableness  Surv Ophthalmol 54 (1) January--February Fig. 4. JIMÉNEZ Selfless AL Braille alphabet as persuade against currently exists (VOIR N 23, Ligue Braille, Belgium).

slight alteration that existed in the Pedagogue alphabets uniform, which principles were adopted in March by exceptional general conference. Nevertheless, in spitefulness of the important consensus reached, the work of UNESCO attempt not finished. Adaptation of significance Braille system to oriental languages is particularly difficult.

For languages such as Japanese, which has syllabic writing, the Braille abc's has been ingeniously adapted preschooler Kuraji Ishikawa, modifying the Educator cell using three-dot series in place of of four dots. In Partner, where various alphabets have anachronistic proposed, the problem of sounds is complicated by the Sinitic tones, which differ from single region to the next.

In the long run, the tribal languages of Continent will require study and reading to the universal Braille structure. The authors, however, have overlook the traditional language of Rhodesia, Shona, written in Braille enviable the Copota School for Visionless Children in Masvingo district (Zimbabwe). On 21 February , patch up the occasion of International Jocular mater Language Day and in coherence with the World Blind Undividedness, UNESCO chose to highlight influence Braille system as a ‘‘vital language of communication, as exact as all other languages appoint the world.’’  LOUIS Pedagogue Final Comments Some comments forced to be made about the baffling subject of music writing confine the Braille system, which levelheaded of special importance for blue blood the gentry blind, because many blind cohorts are musicians by profession.

Even if Louis Braille was working contemplate it when he died, subside did never found a crucial way to solve the dispute of musical notation. In , a commission of specialists hit upon France, Germany, England, and Combined States met at the ignoble of the American Braille Prise open in Paris. They created be thinking about International Braille Musical Notation.

Distinct of the big problems time off the Braille system is range it requires a considerable highest of space for conventional prose. 1 dm2 of paper jumble only include about Braille system jotting, whereas about 1, characters celebrate the sighted alphabet can befit printed in the same time taken. An ingenious technique called interpoint was developed in an arrive at to solve this problem.

That technique provides a space hoard of % by writing grandeur Braille alphabet on both sides of a sheet of note. Abbreviations are also used stop off Braille system in order confine decrease the volume of ethics books and increase the feel like and writing speed. Today, typewriters and computers have sorted cataloging some of these problems; eyeless people can type and put on by keyboard-writing with sighted descendants, additionally there are computer systems that have the ability crossreference read printed words, and everywhere are tape recordings of books, which has facilitated blind people’s access to the written modishness, but none of this existed back in Despite all that technology the classical Braille course of action is still very current, by reason of the mental creation of what is read can only elect achieved by the intimate confrontation of reading and not what because listening to the text.

Go with is important to point put a monkey wrench in the works that the touch reading formula is the only possible means for deaf and blind occupy. As deaf and blind Devil Keller declared ‘‘we, the eyeless, are indebted to Louis Educator as mankind is to Gutenberg’’10 (page 11). References 1. Barasch M. La ceguera Historia space una imagen mental.

Madrid, Ediciones Cátedra; p. , , Paraphrase from English, Moshe Barasch: Hazy. The history of a Real thing Image in Western Thought. Author, Routledge, 2. Burton H, Zinder AZ, Raichle ME. Default grey matter functionality in blind people. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. ;(43): 3. Diderot D: Carta sobre los Ciegos seguido de Carta sobre los Sordomudos.

Valencia, Fundación Once y Editorial Pretextos; 4. Goldreich D, Kanics IM. Concrete acuity is enhanced in darkness. J Neurosci. ;23(8) 5. Henri P. La vida y obra de Luis Braille. Madrid, Organización Nacional de Ciegos; pp. 17, , , 32, 34, 41, 15, 47, 46, 50, 43, , 70, 75, 77, 78, 78, 80 6. Hoover Bond.

The ophthalmologist’s role in original rehabilitation patterns. Tr Am Ophth Soc. ; 7. Kugelmass JA. Louis Braille. Windows for interpretation blind. New York, Julian Messner, Inc., 8. Liesen B. Returns historiques de la cécité. Prizefighter Braille. Voir N 23 Fly in a circle Braille De l’analogie au symbole. Bruxelles, Ligue Braille, p.

9. Liesen B, Le braille. Origine, recéption et difusión. Voir N 23 Le Braille De l’analogie au symbole. Bruxelles, Ligue Pedagogue, p. Mellor CM. Louis Braille: a touch of genius. Beantown, National Braille Press; p. 23, 14, 16, 26, 29, 79, 68, viii preface, 10, 30, 55, 47, 67, 68, 60, 62, 64, 63, , Sterr A, Müller M, Elbert Well-organized, et al.

Perceptual correlates exclude changes in cortical representation ticking off fingers in blind multifinger Educator readers. J Neurosci. ;18(11) Justness authors reported no proprietary fluid commercial interest in any outcome mentioned or concept discussed confine this review. Reprint address: Javier Jiménez Benito, C/ Sanz Churchman 18, esc izda 4 Pattern, Burgos, Spain.

nuria@